牧野 雅子.『痴漢とはなにか――被害と冤罪をめぐる社会学』.京都:エトセトラブックス,2019年11月7日.256頁.
Makino, M. (2019). What is Chikan? A sociological study of victimization and false accusations. Kyoto: Etcetera Books.
Japan is renowned for its safety, yet there’s one peculiar restriction that stands out: the inability to silence smartphone camera shutter sounds. This regulation, rooted in privacy protection laws, reflects a broader societal concern about one pervasive issue—chikan—a crime often perceived as a minor sexual offense but one that represents a significant aspect of sexual violence in Japan.
While the term chikan previously encompassed a broader range of sexual offenses, it is currently most commonly associated with non-consensual touching of another person’s private parts on public transportation. There is a genre of pornography focused on the theme of chikan, which features images of high school girls being molested on their way to school and has a significant consumer base. As previously noted, the usage and perception of the term chikan is evolving. The media plays a significant role in shaping our understanding of this term. Japanese sociologist Masako Makino’s book, What is a Chikan?, is a valuable resource for this topic. It draws upon a wealth of information from various newspapers and magazines that are easily accessible to most people. Makino’s book provides a comprehensive overview of the historical responses to chikan, presented in a clear chronological order. She highlights that these responses are not exclusive to men’s magazines, but rather appear in widely read publications.
The term “sexual violence” encompasses a range of unwanted sexual behaviors, including sexual assault, physical contact, visual, verbal, and voyeuristic actions directed towards the victim. Prior to World War II, chikan was used to refer to sexual violence in general. Currently, sexual assault cases including murder are not referred to as chikan, and the same is true for the 1980s, when chikan came to be widely discussed in the general public. In the 1980s, numerous articles were published for men, providing information on routes where women are vulnerable to assault, as well as guidance on how to select targets. This trend continued into the 1990s and reached its peak. Chikan was not considered sexual violence, and the presence of famous authors who recounted their experiences of committing harassment was not criticized at all. Since the mid-1990s, there has been a notable intensification of efforts to address instances of molestation. Since the 2000s, there has been a shift in focus towards addressing the issue of false accusations of chikan. Makino states that by treating the different phenomena of molestation and false accusation as if they were opposites, the structural problems that give rise to sexual violence are made invisible, and the issue of molestation is downplayed. However, the social view of harassment has evolved, and the accusation of committing molestation became a source of shame, which may have contributed to a decline in articles for men. The author notes that although the number of chikan articles has declined, there is no reflective perspective on the chikan articles that have been published. The operation of women-only trains also commenced in the 2000s. This was a provisional measure to address gender issues, and numerous publications asserted that it was discriminatory against men and sought to align with the expectations of those who engage in voyeurism on these vehicles. Despite the recognition of chikan as a form of harassment and sexual crime, a shift in public perception is still necessary to address gender-related issues in a long-term and sustainable manner and to foster a secure and inclusive commuting environment for all. It is frequently asserted that perpetrators of sexual crimes exhibit cognitive distortions. Makino’s book, from a sociological standpoint, identifies these distortions in society at large through an analysis of published material. The following is an interview with Masako Makino, the author of the book, based on the contents of the book and a course she teaches to students at Kyoto University.
A conversation with Masako Makino
Regarding the stricter penalties in the law, you mentioned that criminalizing chikan would send a message to society, but is it difficult to make a case? Do you think it is because chikan is taken lightly as a crime?
The problem is that even if a victim report is filed, a case cannot be made due to lack of evidence or the punishment is a fine, which does not lead to the prevention of recurrence of this crime. Also, according to the criteria of crimes, chikan can be considered a light crime. There are many crimes that are considered sexual violence. For comparison, shoplifting is a minor crime in child delinquency. If a significant amount of money has been stolen, the person may be charged with theft, and the penalty can be severe. However, more important is not to punish the person who committed the crime, but to prevent the crime from recurring. Although the crime is minor, steps must be taken to prevent escalation. There is a problem with putting all the responsibility on the law, so when we think about sexual violence, we have to think about it not only as a legal issue, but also as a social issue.
The law was changed in 2023 to make sexual crimes more severely punishable, but I don’t necessarily think this is a good thing either. While it is good that the victim’s claim is now more easily recognized, the criminal law is based on the idea of prohibiting what the law says in the first place. There is nothing we can do about what is not written in the law. I think I can say this from my feeling as a member of society—that since criminal law is a state power, it should have fewer opportunities to intervene in people’s lives. It used to be called civil non-intervention in cases of domestic violence. That has changed, but if only the presence of the law guarantees the safety of a victim, such as a wife, that is not the ideal we strive for as a society.
Lobbying for the revision of the Criminal Law has been underway since the 1980s. I wonder how far we have come, but on the other hand, I am overwhelmed that it has taken this long. Society has changed enormously since the 1980s, with the rise of social movements such as Me Too, and the fact that it is now deemed necessary to consider the human rights of both victims and perpetrators. There is a concern that there may be cases in which the defendant desperately contests their innocence because of the heavy sentence. However, I think it can be said that such a change in society can still be looked upon with hope.
Many porn videos show chikan, which is the main image for this term for younger people. Do these videos encourage sexual harassment? Should they be restricted?
I think the first thing to say about that is that there is still no evidence that fiction is related to real-life events. It is quite possible that fiction has influenced the cognitive distortions of sex offenders. I believe that the main opinions opposing the regulation are that it would prevent people from engaging in acts that actually break the law, or that it violates freedom of expression. With regard to the former, there are cases where the filming of pornography is the scene of real-life sexual violence, and just because the content is fiction does not necessarily make it acceptable. Is it acceptable, then, to produce games, for example, without the use of live people? To what extent should freedom of expression be allowed? It will not be a law; it will be a logic of prohibition as a society. Personally, I feel that there should be some regulation of the content that is used to satisfy some people’s sexual desires for children. However, it would be a bad idea for the law to preempt this regulation as well. There are areas that could be improved, such as the cultural context, societal perceptions, and media treatment of sexual desire that objectifies children.
You introduced Japanese feminist and activist Kikue Yamakawa (1890–1980)’s statement that “the molestation problem is a male problem.” Why do you think that even today, people often discuss how women should defend themselves and whether women themselves, as victims, were responsible?
First and foremost, I think the reason is that people find it difficult to face their “perpetration.” This is not because of sexual violence, but the same thing can be said about the responsibility for war, for example. There is a lot of talk about Japan’s damage, but there is very little talk about Japan’s perpetration, especially what Japan did to the countries of East Asia. (If you search for what chikan is on Google, you will find information on how to prevent false accusations of chikan, what to look out for to avoid being a victim of false accusations, and lawyers to help you if you are accused of something you didn’t do.) If a victim of chikan is looking for a lawyer to consult with, they will have trouble finding one easily. It is also characteristic of the lack of information about chikan, as people avoid discussing it or its clear definition. Then there is also sexual violence perpetrated by women, albeit in smaller numbers. In these cases too, it is said that prejudice surrounding gender makes it difficult to even disclose that one has been victimized in the first place.
I’m wondering if you might find the term “feminist” to be a bit uncomfortable. I appreciate your willingness to consider this interview, though I sense some hesitation.
Perhaps I am somewhat peculiar, but I have heard it said that married people are not qualified to call themselves feminists, so I choose not to call myself a feminist. I have some benefits from the patriarchy. Also, I feel guilty for not fighting as hard as other feminists, so I don’t think I have the right to be called a feminist.
What are some of the difficulties or challenges of teaching new students and students who do not specialize in sociology?
It seems especially difficult for students (many of whom are boys) who pride themselves on their hard work to understand the difficulties that many women face because of their female identity. I often get comments like, “Why do we have to deal with themes such as sexual violence in class?” or “Aren’t women-only cars discriminatory against men?” There was one student who came to me after class with a very long opinion about women-only cars being discriminatory. The idea of “self-responsibility” on the part of victims is particularly strong. (In response to my statement that I do not agree with victim blaming but sometimes wonder if the incident could have been prevented if the victim had acted differently.) → It is natural to feel that way about individual cases. Learning from the experience of being victimized, sharing one’s own experience, and urging others to defend themselves is not the same as thinking that sexual crimes will go away if only women would be careful.
Some feel that they are being accused of their male identity and would like the class to be more detached from their identity. It is not my intention that my classes be perceived as moral education. Rather than students reflecting on their own daily conduct, I would like them to keep a little of the content of the class in mind over a longer period of time and apply it to their own areas of specialization. If you are studying law, you will find a wide range of relevance in legislating; if you are studying art, you will find relevance in the field of art and in representation, and so on.
In addition, questions will be asked in class, and it is often the case that we will deal with what is of interest at the time. In 2018, there was an incident in which Tokyo Medical University unfairly lowered the scores of female students, making it more difficult for them to gain admission. (Case found by accident in the investigation of buying one’s way into school. It was based on the claim that women sometimes take time off from work after becoming doctors to have children, etc., because the effort to educate them would be wasted.) Regarding this case, I received feedback from students that they would not be satisfied if their efforts, such as in the college entrance exam, were recognized but were based on an unfair procedure (even if it benefits them). While there are some who argue that the women’s quota will reduce the men’s share, etc., I am pleased to see this feedback that is trying to look at fairness in an already unequal social system. While I find it hard to believe that such injustices are still being committed in the 21st century, when I ask students their opinions about it, it gives me hope for students who are born and live in a new era.
Notes
On the characteristics of chikan
Chikan being the molestation on the train, and the fact that these are targeted at middle and high school students in uniform, it can be pointed out that these are based on a sexual gaze toward children. It is a crime that targets children rather than young women. In Japan, there is a trend to promote otaku culture, but some parts of it are not entirely acceptable because of the sexualized consumption of children’s images. It is a difficult trend to oppose, as these cultures bring good economic benefits that can hardly be compared to any other. Although representations of chikan have decreased in popular publications, this does not necessarily mean that they have disappeared. With social networking sites becoming mainstream, where private individuals can easily disseminate information, voyeurism and online harassment are not visible to the public. It is becoming increasingly difficult to prevent these crimes. Society as a whole must show its commitment to protecting minors.
Treatment of perpetrators after punishment
We must also think about the acceptance of perpetrators into society. Extreme opinions are often found on social networking sites, and these are not unfathomable when one considers the fears of the victims. However, when we think about perpetrators, one thing is true: they will always return to society. It is not an impossible situation that someone close to you is a sex offender. If we hypothetically consider this situation, we can examine the situation with a sense of human rights not only for the victim but also for the perpetrator. It is important that society be educated in the prevention of recurrence, and that this be made possible.
OpenEdition suggests that you cite this post as follows:
jlefloch (June 26, 2025). Chikan and Sexual Violence in Japan. Exploring Gender Studies in Japan. Retrieved July 16, 2025 from https://doi.org/10.58079/147z4
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